Nero

For other uses, see Nero (disambiguation).

Nero
Emperor of the Roman Empire
Nero at Glyptothek, Munich
Reign	October 13, 54 – June 9, 68 (Proconsul from 51)
Full name	Nero Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus
Born	December 15 37(37-12-15)
	Antium
Died	June 9 68 (aged 30)
	Rome
Predecessor	Claudius
Successor	Galba
Wife/wives	Claudia Octavia
	Poppaea Sabina
	Statilia Messalina
Issue	Claudia Augusta
Dynasty	Julio-Claudian
Father	Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus
Mother	Agrippina the Younger

Nero Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus (December 15, 37 – June 9, 68),Nero\'s birth day is listed in Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Nero 6. His death day is uncertain, though, perhaps because Galba was declared emperor before Nero died. A June 9th death day comes from Jerome, Chronicle, which lists Nero\'s rule as 13 years, 7 months and 28 days. Cassius Dio, Roman History LXII.3 and Josephus, War of the Jews IV, say Nero\'s rule was 13 years, 8 months which would be June 11th born Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus, also called Nero Claudius Caesar Germanicus, was the fifth and last Roman Emperor of the Julio-Claudian dynasty. Nero was adopted by his great uncle Claudius to become heir to the throne. As Nero Claudius Caesar, he succeeded to the throne on October 13, 54, following Claudius\' death.

Nero ruled from 54 to 68, focusing much of his attention on diplomacy, trade, and increasing the cultural capital of the empire. He ordered the building of theatres and promoted athletic games. His reign included a successful war and negotiated peace with the Parthian Empire (58–63), the suppression of the British revolt (60–61) and improving diplomatic ties with Greece. In 68 a military coup drove Nero into hiding. Facing execution, he reportedly committed forced suicide.Suetonius claims that Nero committed suicide in Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Nero 49; Sulpicius Severus, who possibly used Tacitus\' lost fragments as a source, reports that is was uncertain whether Nero committed suicide, Sulpicius Severus, Chronica II.29, also see T.D. Barnes, "The Fragments of Tacitus\' Histories", Classical Philology (1977), p.228

Nero\'s rule is often associated with tyranny and extravagance.Galba criticized Nero\'s luxuria, both his public and private excessive spending, during rebellion, Tacitus, Annals I.16; Kragelund, Patrick, "Nero\'s Luxuria, in Tacitus and in the Octavia", The Classical Quarterly, 2000, p. 494-515 He is known for a number of executions, including his motherReferences to Nero\'s matricide appear in the Sibylline Oracles 5.490-520, Geoffrey Chaucer\'s Canterbury Tales The Monk\'s Tale, and William Shakespeare\'s Hamlet 3.ii and adoptive brother, as the emperor who "fiddled while Rome burned"Nero was not a fiddle player, but a lyre player. Suetonius claims Nero played the lyre while Rome burned, see Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Nero 38; For a detailed explanation of this transition see M.F. Gyles "Nero Fiddled while Rome Burned", The Classical Journal (1948), p. 211-217 [1] and an early persecutor of Christians. This view is based upon the main surviving sources for Nero\'s reign—Tacitus, Suetonius and Cassius Dio. Few surviving sources paint Nero in a favorable light.These include Lucan\'s Civil War, Seneca the Younger\'s On Mercy and Dio Chrysostom\'s Discourses along with various Roman coins and inscriptions Some sources, though, portray him as an emperor who was popular with the Roman people, especially in the east.Tacitus, Histories I.4, I.5, I.13, II.8; Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Nero 57, Life of Otho 7, Life of Vitellius 11; Philostratus II, The Life of Apollonius 5.41; Dio Chrysostom, Discourse XXI, On Beauty

The study of Nero is problematic as some modern historians question the reliability of ancient sources when reporting on Nero\'s alleged tyrannical acts.On fire and Christian persecution, see F.W. Clayton, "Tacitus and Christian Persecution", The Classical Quarterly, p. 81-85; B.W. Henderson, Life and Principate of the Emperor Nero, p. 437; On general bias against Nero, see Edward Champlin, Nero, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2003, p. 36-52 (ISBN 0-674-01192-9) It may be impossible to completely separate fact from fiction concerning Nero\'s reign.

Contents 1 Early life 1.1 Family 1.2 Rise to power 2 Emperor 2.1 Early rule 2.2 Matricide and consolidation of power 2.3 War and peace with Parthia 2.4 Administrative policies 2.5 Major rebellions and power struggles 2.6 Great Fire of Rome 2.7 Public performances 2.8 Death 2.9 After death 3 Historiography 4 Nero and religion 4.1 Jewish tradition 4.2 Christian tradition 5 Nero in post-ancient culture 5.1 Nero in medieval and Renaissance literature 5.2 Nero in modern culture 6 Ancestry 7 Notes 8 References 8.1 Primary sources 8.2 Secondary material

Early life

Roman imperial dynasties
Julio-Claudian dynasty

Augustus Children    Natural - Julia the Elder    Adoptive - Gaius Caesar, Lucius Caesar, Agrippa Postumus, Tiberius Tiberius Children    Natural - Julius Caesar Drusus    Adoptive - Germanicus Caligula Children    Natural - Julia Drusilla    Adoptive - Tiberius Gemellus Claudius Children    Natural - Claudia Antonia, Claudia Octavia, Britannicus    Adoptive - Nero Nero Children    Natural - Claudia Augusta

Family

Nero was born with the name Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus on December 15, AD 37, in Antium, near Rome.Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Nero 1Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Nero 6 He was the only son of Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus and Agrippina the Younger, sister of emperor Caligula.

Lucius\' father was grandson to Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus and Aemilia Lepida through their son Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus. Gnaeus was a grandson to Mark Antony and Octavia Minor through their daughter Antonia Major. Through Octavia, he was the grand-nephew of Caesar Augustus. Nero\'s father had been employed as a praetor and was a member of Caligula\'s staff when the future-emperor traveled to the East.Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Nero 5 Nero\'s father was described by Suetonius as a murderer and a cheat who was charged by emperor Tiberius with treason, adultery, and incest. Tiberius died allowing him to escape these charges. Gnaeus died of edema (or "dropsy") in 39 when Lucius was three.

Lucius\' mother was Agrippina the Younger, who was great-granddaughter to Caesar Augustus and his wife Scribonia through their daughter Julia the Elder and her husband Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa. Agrippina\'s father, Germanicus, was grandson to Augustus\'s wife, Livia, on one side and to Mark Antony and Octavia on the other. Germanicus\' mother Antonia Minor, was a daughter of Octavia Minor and Mark Antony. Octavia was Augustus\' second elder sister. Germanicus was also the adoptive son of Tiberius. A number of ancient historians accuse Agrippina of murdering her third husband, emperor Claudius.Tacitus, Annals XII.66; Cassius Dio, Roman History LXI.34; Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Claudius 44; Josephus is less sure, Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews XX.8.1

Rise to power

It was not expected for Lucius to ever become emperor. His maternal uncle, Caligula, had begun his reign at the age of twenty-four with ample time to produce his own heir. Lucius\' mother, Agrippina, lost favor with Caligula and was exiled in 39 after her husband\'s death.Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Caligula 29 Caligula seized Lucius\'s inheritance and sent him to be raised by his less wealthy aunt, Domitia Lepida.

Caligula produced no heir. He, his wife Caesonia and their infant daughter Julia Drusilla were murdered in 41.Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews XIX.1.14, XIX.2.4 These events led Claudius, Caligula\'s uncle, to become emperor.Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews XIX.3.2 Claudius allowed Agrippina to return from exile.

Coin issued under Claudius celebrating young Nero as the future emperor, c. 50

Claudius had married twice before marrying Messalina.Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Claudius 26 His previous marriages produced three children including a son, Drusus, who died at a young age.Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Claudius 27 He had two children with Messalina - Claudia Octavia (b. 40) and Britannicus (b. 41). Messalina was executed by Claudius in 48. In 49, Claudius married a fourth time, to Agrippina. To aid Claudius politically, Lucius was officially adopted in 50 and renamed Nero Claudius Caesar Drusus (see adoption in Rome).Tacitus, Annals XII.25 Nero was older than his stepbrother, Britannicus, and became heir to the throne.Tacitus, Annals XII.26

Nero was proclaimed an adult in 51 at the age of fourteen.Tacitus, Annals XII.41 He was appointed proconsul, entered and first addressed the Senate, made joint public appearances with Claudius, and was featured in coinage. In 53, he married his stepsister Claudia Octavia.Tacitus, Annals XII.58

Emperor

Early rule

Aureus of Nero and his mother, Agrippina, c. 54.

Claudius died in 54 and Nero was established as emperor. Though accounts vary greatly, many ancient historians claim Agrippina poisoned Claudius. It is not known how much Nero knew or was involved with the death of Claudius.Cassius Dio\'s and Suetonius\' accounts claim Nero knew of the murder, Cassius Dio, Roman History LXI.35, Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Nero 33; Tacitus\' and Josephus\' accounts only mention Agrippina, Tacitus, Annals XII.65, Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews XX.8.1

Nero became emperor at sixteen, the youngest Emperor yet.Augustus was 35, Tiberius was 56, Caligula was 25 and Cladius was 50 Ancient historians describe Nero\'s early reign as being strongly influenced by his mother Agrippina, his tutor Lucius Annaeus Seneca, and the Praetorian Prefect Sextus Afranius Burrus, especially in the first year.Cassius Dio claims "At first Agrippina managed for him all the business of the empire", then Seneca and Burrus "took the rule entirely into their own hands,", but "after the death of Britannicus, Seneca and Burrus no longer gave any careful attention to the public business" in 55, Cassius Dio, Roman History LXI.3-7 The first few years of Nero\'s rule were known as examples of fine administration. The matters of the Empire were handled effectively and the Senate enjoyed a period of renewed influence in state affairs.Tacitus, Annals XIII.5

Very early in Nero\'s rule, problems arose from competition for influence between Agrippina and Nero\'s two advisers, Seneca and Burrus. In 54, Agrippina tried to sit down next to Nero while he met with an Armenian envoy, but Seneca stopped her and prevented a scandalous scene. Nero\'s personal friends also mistrusted Agrippina and told Nero to beware of his mother.Tacitus, Annals XIII.13 Nero was reportedly unsatisfied with his marriage to Octavia and entered an affair with Claudia Acte, a former slave.Tacitus, Annals XIII.12 In 55, Agrippina attempted to intervene in favor of Octavia and demanded that her son dismiss Acte. Nero, with the support of Seneca, resisted the intervention of his mother in his personal affairs.Tacitus, Annals XIII.14

With Agrippina\'s influence over her son severed, she reportedly turned to a younger candidate for the throne.Tacitus, Annals XIII.15 Nearly fifteen-year-old Britannicus was still legally a minor, but was approaching legal adulthood. According to Tacitus, Agrippina hoped that with her support, Britannicus, being the blood son of Claudius, would be seen as the true heir to the throne by the state over Nero. However, the youth died suddenly and suspiciously on February 12, 55, the very day before his proclamation as an adult had been set.Tacitus, Annals XIII.16 Nero claimed that Britannicus died from an epileptic seizure, but ancient historians all claim Britannicus\' death came from Nero\'s poisoning him.Tacitus, Annals XIII.16; Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews, XX.8.2; Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Nero 33; Cassius Dio, Roman History LXI.7 After the death of Britannicus, Agrippina was accused of slandering Octavia and Nero ordered her out of the imperial residence.Tacitus, Annals XIII.18-21

Matricide and consolidation of power

Coin of Nero and Poppaea Sabina

Over time, Nero became progressively more powerful, freeing himself of his advisers and eliminating rivals to the throne. In 55, he removed Marcus Antonius Pallas, an ally of Agrippina, from his position in the treasury. Pallas, along with Burrus, was accused of conspiring against the emperor to bring Faustus Sulla to the throne.Tacitus, Annals XIII.23 Seneca was accused of having relations with Agrippina and embezzlement.Cassius Dio, Roman History LXI.10 Seneca was able to get himself, Pallas and Burrus acquitted. According to Cassius Dio, at this time, Seneca and Burrus reduced their role in governing from careful management to mere moderation of Nero.Cassius Dio, Roman History LXI.7

In 58, Nero became romantically involved with Poppaea Sabina, the wife of his friend and future emperor Otho.Tacitus, Annals XIII.46 Reportedly because a marriage to Poppaea and a divorce from Octavia did not seem politically feasible with Agrippina alive, Nero ordered the murder of his mother in 59.Tacitus, Annals XIV.1 A number of modern historians find this an unlikely motive as Nero did not marry Poppaea until 62.Dawson, Alexis, "Whatever Happened to Lady Agrippina?", The Classical Journal, 1969, p. 254 Additionally, according to Suetonius, Poppaea did not divorce her husband until after Agrippina\'s death, making it unlikely that the already married Poppaea would be pressing Nero for marriage.Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Otho 3 Some modern historians theorize that Nero\'s execution of Agrippina was prompted by her plotting to set Rubellius Plautus on the throne.Rogers, Robert, Heirs and Rivals to Nero, Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association, Vol. 86. (1955), p. 202. Silana accuses Agrippina of plotting to bring up Plautus in 55, Tacitus, Annals XIII.19; Silana is recalled from exile after Agrippina\'s power waned, Tacitus, Annals XIV.12; Plautus is exiled in 60, Tacitus, Annals XIV.22 According to Suetonius, Nero tried to kill his mother through a planned shipwreck, but when she survived, he had her executed and framed it as a suicide.Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Nero 34

The Remorse of Nero after Killing his Mother, by John William Waterhouse, 1878.

In 62 Nero\'s adviser, Burrus, died.Tacitus, Annals XIV.51 Additionally, Seneca was again faced with embezzlement charges.Tacitus, Annals XIV.52 Seneca asked Nero for permission to retire from public affairs.Tacitus, Annals XIV.53 Nero divorced and banished Octavia on grounds of infertility, leaving him free to marry the pregnant Poppaea.Tacitus, Annals XIV.60 After public protests, Nero was forced to allow Octavia to return from exile, but she was executed shortly upon her return.Tacitus, Annals XIV.64

Accusations of treason against Nero and the Senate first appeared in 62. Tacitus, Annals XIV.48 The Senate ruled that Antistius, a praetor, should be put to death for speaking ill of Nero at a party. Later, Nero ordered the exile of Fabricius Veiento who slandered the Senate in a book.Tacitus, Annals XIV.49 Tacitus writes that the roots of the conspiracy led by Gaius Calpurnius Piso began in this year. To consolidate power, Nero executed a number of people in 62 and 63 including his rivals Pallas, Rubellius Plautus and Faustus Sulla.Tacitus, Annals XIV.65 According to Suetonius, Nero "showed neither discrimination nor moderation in putting to death whomsoever he pleased" during this period.Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Nero 37

Nero\'s consolidation of power also included a slow usurping of authority from the Senate. In 54, Nero promised to give the Senate powers equivalent to those under Republican rule.Tacitus, Annals XIII.4 By 65, senators complained that they had no power left and this led to the Pisonian conspiracy.Tacitus, Annals XV.51

War and peace with Parthia

Shortly after Nero\'s accession to the throne in 55, the Roman vassal kingdom of Armenia overthrew their prince Rhadamistus and he was replaced with the Parthian prince Tiridates.Tacitus, Annals XIII.7 This was seen as a Parthian invasion of Roman territory. There was concern in Rome over how the young emperor would handle the situation.Tacitus, Annals XIII.8 Nero reacted by immediately sending the military to the region under the command of Gnaeus Domitius Corbulo.Tacitus, Annals XIII.9 The Parthians temporarily relinquished control of Armenia to Rome.Tacitus, Annals XIII.10

The peace did not last and full-scale war broke out in 58. The Parthian king Vologases I refused to remove his brother Tiridates from Armenia.Tacitus, Annals XIII.42 The Parthians began a full-scale invasion of the Armenian kingdom. Commander Corbulo responded and repelled most of the Parthian army that same year.Tacitus, Annals XIII.55 Tiridates retreated and Rome again controlled most of Armenia.

Nero was acclaimed in public for this initial victory.Tacitus, Annals XIII.56 Tigranes, a Cappadocian noble raised in Rome, was installed by Nero as the new ruler of Armenia.Tacitus, Annals XIV.36 Corbulo was appointed governor of Syria as a reward.

The Parthian Empire c. 60. Nero\'s peace deal with Parthia was a political victory at home and made him beloved in the east.

In 62, Tigranes invaded the Parthian city of Adiabene.Tacitus, Annals XV.1 Again, Rome and Parthia were at war and this continued until 63. Parthia began building up for a strike against the Roman province of Syria.Tacitus, Annals XV.4 Corbulo tried to convince Nero to continue the war, but Nero opted for a peace deal instead.Tacitus, Annals XV.19 There was anxiety in Rome about eastern grain supplies and a budget deficit.Tacitus, Annals XV.21

The result was a deal where Tiridates again became the Armenian king, but was crowned in Rome by emperor Nero. In the future, the king of Armenia was to be a Parthian prince, but his appointment required approval from the Romans. Tiridates was forced to come to Rome and partake in ceremonies meant to display Roman dominance.Tacitus, Annals XV.38 The Roman people were said to be overjoyed by lives saved through this peace deal.

This peace deal of 63 was a considerable victory for Nero politically.Cassius Dio, Roman History LXII.23 Nero became very popular in the eastern provinces of Rome and with the Parthians as well. The peace between Parthia and Rome lasted 50 years until emperor Trajan of Rome invaded Armenia in 114.

Administrative policies

Marble bust of Nero, Antiquarium of the Palatine.

Over the course of his reign, Nero often made rulings that pleased the lower class. Nero was criticised as being obsessed with being popular.Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Nero 53; Gibbon, Edward, The History of The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire Vol. I, Chap. VI

Nero began his reign in 54 by promising the Senate more autonomy.Tacitus, Annals XIII.4 In this first year, he forbade others to refer to him with regard to enactments, for which he was praised by the Senate.Tacitus, Annals XIII.25 Nero was known for being hands-off and spending his time visiting brothels and taverns during this period.

In 55, Nero began taking on a more active role as an administrator. He was consul four times between 55 and 60. During this period, some ancient historians speak fairly well of Nero and contrast it with his later rule.Aurelius Victor mentions Trajan\'s praise of Nero\'s first five or so years. Aurelius Victor The Style of Life and the Manners of the Imperitors 5; The unknown author of Epitome de Caesaribus also mentions Trajan\'s praise of the first five or so years of Nero Auctor incertus Epitome De Caesarbius 5

Under Nero, restrictions were put on the amount of bail and fines.Tacitus, Annals XIII.28 Also, fees for lawyers were limited.Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Nero 17 There was a discussion in the Senate on the misconduct of the freedmen class, and a strong demand was made that patrons should have the right of revoking freedom.Tacitus, Annals XIII.26 Nero supported the freedmen and ruled that patrons had no such right.Tacitus, Annals XIII.27 The Senate tried to pass a law in which the crimes of one slave applied to all slaves within a household which Nero vetoed.Tacitus, Annals XIV.45

Nero transferred collection authority to lower commissioners of competency. Nero banned any magistrate or procurator from exhibiting public entertainment for fear that the venue was being used as a method to sway the populace.Tacitus, Annals XIII.31 Additionally, there were many impeachments and removals of government officials along with arrests for extortion and corruption.Tacitus, Annals XIII.30, XIV.18, XIV.40, XIV.46

Nero’s actions attempted to the help the poor’s economic situation. When further complaints arose that the poor were being overly taxed, Nero attempted to repeal all indirect taxes.Tacitus, Annals XIII.50 The Senate convinced him this action would be too extreme. As a compromise, taxes were cut from 4.5% to 2.5%.Tacitus, Annals XIII.51 Additionally, secret government tax records were ordered to become public. To lower the cost of food imports, merchant ships were declared tax-exempt.

Nero was an avid lover of arts and entertainment. Nero built a number of gymnasiums and theaters and had performers dress in Greek clothing.Tacitus, Annals XIV.20 Enormous gladiatorial shows were held.Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Nero 12 Nero also established the quinquennial Neronia. The festival included games, poetry and theater. Historians indicate that there was a belief that theater was for the lower-class and led to immorality and laziness. Others looked down upon Greek influence.Tacitus, Annals XIV.21 Some questioned the large public expenditure on entertainment.

In 63, fiscal crises began to emerge. The Parthian War and a lost shipment of grain threatened to increase the price of food in Rome.Tacitus, Annals XV.18 Nero reassigned management of public funds, urged fiscal responsibility and gave a private donation to the treasury. He then opted for a peace deal with the Parthians.Tacitus, Annals XV.29 In 64, Rome burned.Tacitus, Annals XV.38 Nero enacted a public relief effort as well as reconstruction.Tacitus, Annals XV.43 The provinces, where wealthy land-owners lived, were heavily taxed following the fire Tacitus, Annals XV.45

A number of major construction projects occurred in Nero\'s late reign. To prevent malaria, Nero had the marshes of Ostia filled with rubble from the fire. He erected the large Domus Aurea.Tacitus, Annals XV.42 In 67 , Nero attempted to have a canal dug at the Isthmus of Corinth.Josephus, War of the Jews III.10.10 These projects and others exacerbated the drain on the State\'s budget.Tacitus, Annals XVI.3

Major rebellions and power struggles

Plaster bust of Nero, Pushkin Museum, Moscow.

Compared with his immediate successors, Rome was relatively peaceful under Nero\'s reign. War with Parthia was Nero\'s only major war and he was both criticized and praised for an aversion to battle.Suetonius Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Nero 18; Marcus Annaeus Lucanus Pharsalia (Civil War) (c. 65)[2] Like many emperors, Nero faced a number of internal rebellions and power struggles.

British Revolt (Boudica\'s Uprising)

In 60, a major rebellion broke out in the province of Britannia.Tacitus, Annals XIV.29 While the governor Gaius Suetonius Paulinus and his troops were busy capturing Mona Island (Anglesey Island) from druids, the tribes of the south-east staged a revolt led by queen Boudica of the Iceni.Tacitus, Annals XIV.31 Boudica and her troops destroyed three cities before the army of Suetonius Paulinus was able to return, be reinforced and put down the rebellion in 61.Tacitus, Annals XIV.31-38 Fearing Suetonius Paulinus would provoke further rebellion, Nero replaced the governor with the more passive Publius Petronius Turpilianus.Tacitus, Annals XIV.39

The Pisonian Conspiracy

Main article: Pisonian conspiracy

In 65, Gaius Calpurnius Piso, a Roman statesman, organized a conspiracy against Nero with the help of Subrius Flavus, a praetorian tribune, and Sulpicius Asper, a centurion.Tacitus, Annals XV.49 According to Tacitus, many conspirators wished to "rescue the State" from the emperor and restore the Republic.Tacitus, Annals XV.50 The freedman Milichus discovered the conspiracy and reported it to Nero\'s secretary, Epaphroditos.Tacitus, Annals XV.55 As a result, the conspiracy failed and its members were executed including Nero\'s former friend Lucan, the poet.Tacitus, Annals XV.70 Nero\'s previous advisor, Seneca was ordered to commit suicide after admitting he discussed the plot with the conspirators.Tacitus, Annals XV.60-62

Jewish Revolt (The First Jewish-Roman War)

In 66, there was a Jewish revolt in Judea stemming from Greek and Jewish religious tension.Josephus, War of the Jews II.13.7 In 67, Nero dispatched Vespasian to restore order.Josephus, War of the Jews III.1.3 This revolt was eventually put down in 70, after Nero\'s death.Josephus, War of the Jews VI.10.1 This revolt is famous for Romans breaching the walls of Jerusalem and destroying the Second Temple of Jerusalem.Josephus, War of the Jews VII.1.1

Vindex\'s Rebellion

In late 67 or early 68, Vindex, the governor of Gallia Lugdunensis in Gaul, rebelled against the tax policies of Nero.Cassius Dio, Roman History LXIII.22 Virginius Rufus, the governor of superior Germany was sent to put down the rebellion.Cassius Dio, Roman History LXIII.24 To gain support, Vindex called on Galba, the governor of Hispania Citerior in Hispania (the Iberian Peninsula, comprising modern Spain and Portugal), to become emperor.Plutarch, The Parallel Lives, Life of Galba 5 Virginius Rufus defeated Vindex\'s forces and Vindex committed suicide. Galba was declared a public enemy and his legion was confined in the city of Clunia.

The Rise of Galba

Nero had regained the control of the empire militarily, but this opportunity was used by his enemies in Rome. By June of 68 the senate voted Galba the emperorCassius Dio, Roman History LXIII.49 and declared Nero a public enemy.Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Nero 49 The praetorian guard was bribed to betray Nero by the praetorian prefect, Nymphidius Sabinus, who desired to become emperor himself.Tacitus, Histories I.5 The praetorian guard captured Nero and he reportedly committed suicide.

After Nero\'s death, Rome descended into a period civil war known as the Year of the Four Emperors.Tacitus, Histories I.2 Nero\'s successors fought among themselves for power. Galba, Otho and Vitellius were each briefly emperor until Nero\'s general Vespasian returned from Judea and restored order as emperor.

Great Fire of Rome

Main article: Great Fire of Rome

The Great Fire of Rome erupted on the night of July 18 to July 19, 64. The fire started at the southeastern end of the Circus Maximus in shops selling flammable goods.Tacitus, Annals XV.38

Ancient graffiti portrait of Nero found at the Domus Tiberiana.

How large the fire was is up for debate. According to Tacitus, who was nine at the time of the fire, it spread quickly and burnt for five days.Tacitus, Annals XV.40; Suetonius says the fire raged for six days and seven nights, Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Nero 38; A pillar set by Domitius states the fire burned for nine days It completely destroyed four of fourteen Roman districts and severely damaged seven. The only other historian who lived through the period and mentioned the fire is Pliny the Elder who wrote about it in passing.Pliny the Elder, Natural Histories, XVII.1.5, Pliny mentions trees that lasted "down to the Emperor Nero’s conflagration" Other historians who lived through the period (including Josephus, Dio Chrysostom, Plutarch, and Epictetus) make no mention of it.

It is uncertain who or what actually caused the fire—whether accident or arson. Suetonius and Cassius Dio favor Nero as the arsonist.Suetonius, Life of Nero 38; Cassius Dio, Roman History LXII.16 Tacitus mentions that Christians confessed to the crime, but it is not known whether these were false confessions induced by torture.Tacitus Annals XV.44 However, accidentally started fires were common in ancient Rome.Juvenal writes that Rome suffered from perpetual fires and falling houses Juvenal, Satires 3.7, 3.195, 3.214 In fact, Rome burned significantly again under Vitellius in 69 and under Titus in 80.Suetonius, Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Titus 8

It was said by Suetonius and Cassius Dio that Nero sang the "Sack of Ilium" in stage costume while the city burned.Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Nero, 38; Cassius Dio, Roman History LXII.16 However, Tacitus\' account has Nero in Antium at the time of the fire.Tacitus, Annals XV.39 Tacitus said that Nero playing his lyre and singing while the city burned was only rumor. Popular legend remembers Nero playing the fiddle while Rome burned, but this is an anachronism as the instrument had not yet been invented, and would not be for over 1,000 years.

According to Tacitus, upon hearing news of the fire, Nero rushed back to Rome to organize a relief effort, which he paid for from his own funds. After the fire, Nero opened his palaces to provide shelter for the homeless, and arranged for food supplies to be delivered in order to prevent starvation among the survivors. In the wake of the fire, he made a new urban development plan. Houses after the fire were spaced out, built in brick, and faced by porticos on wide roads.Tacitus, Annals XV.43 Nero also built a new palace complex known as the Domus Aurea in an area cleared by the fire. This included lush artificial landscapes and a 30 meter statue of himself, the Colossus of Nero.Tacitus, Annals XV.42 The size of this complex is debated (from 100 to 300 acres).Roth, Leland M. (1993). Understanding Architecture: Its Elements, History and Meaning, First, Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 227-8. ISBN 0-06-430158-3Ball, Larry F. (2003). The Domus Aurea and the Roman architectural revolution. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521822513Warden reduces its size to under 100 acres. Warden, P.G., "The Domus Aurea Reconsidered," Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians 40 (1981) 271-278 To find the necessary funds for the reconstruction, tributes were imposed on the provinces of the empire.Tacitus, Annals XV.45

According to Tacitus, the population searched for a scapegoat and rumors held Nero responsible. To diffuse blame, Nero targeted a sect called the Christians. He ordered Christians to be thrown to dogs, while others were crucified and burned.

Tacitus described the event:

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Public performances

Nero coin, c. 66. Ara Pacis on the reverse.

Nero enjoyed driving a one-horse chariot, singing to the harp and poetry.Tacitus, Annals XIV.14, XIV.16 He even composed songs that were performed by other entertainers throughout the empire.Philostratus II, Life of Apollonius 4.39; Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Vitellius 11 At first, Nero only performed for a private audience.Tacitus, Annals XV.33

In 64, Nero began singing in public in Neapolis in order to improve his popularity. He also sang at the second quinquennial Neronia in 65.Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars Life of Nero 21 It was said that Nero craved the attention, but historians also write that Nero was encouraged to sing and perform in public by the Senate, his inner circle and the people.Tacitus, Annals XVI.4; Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Vitellius 11; Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Nero 10, 21 Ancient historians strongly criticize his choice to perform, calling it shameful.Tacitus, Annals XIV.15; Cassius Dio, Roman History LXI.19

Nero was convinced to participate in the Olympic Games of 67 in order to improve relations with Greece and display Roman dominance.Philostratus II, Life of Apollonius 5.7 As a competitor, Nero raced a ten-horse chariot and nearly died after being thrown from it.Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Nero 24 He also performed as an actor and a singer.Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Nero 25 Though Nero faltered in his racing and acting competitions, he won these crowns nevertheless and paraded them when he returned to Rome. The victories are attributed to Nero bribing the judges and his status as emperor.Suetonius The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Nero 23, 24

Death

v • d • e Year of the Four Emperors
Placentia – Locus Castrorum – 1st Bedriacum – 2nd Bedriacum – Castra Vetera – Augusta Treverorum

In late 67 or early 68, Vindex, the governor of Gallia Lugdunensis in Gaul, rebelled against the tax policies of Nero.Cassius Dio, Roman History LXIII.22 Virginius Rufus, the governor of superior Germany was sent to put down the rebellion. To gain support, Vindex called on Galba, the governor of Hispania Citerior in Hispania, to become emperor. Virginius Rufus defeated Vindex\'s forces and Vindex committed suicide. Galba was declared a public enemy and his legion was confined in the city of Clunia.

Nero had regained the control of the empire militarily, but this opportunity was used by his enemies in Rome. By June of 68 the senate voted Galba the emperorCassius Dio, Roman History LXIII.49 and declared Nero a public enemy. The Praetorian Guard was bribed to betray Nero by the praetorian prefect, Nymphidius Sabinus, who desired to become emperor himself.

According to Suetonius, Nero fled Rome on the Salaria road.Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Nero 48 They urged him to flee, but he prepared himself for suicide. Reportedly, the praetorian guard entered to capture Nero just as he stabbed himself with the help of his secretary, Epaphroditos.Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Nero 49 Upon seeing the figure of a Roman soldier, he gasped "this is fidelity." It was said by Cassius Dio that he uttered the last words "Jupiter, what an artist perishes in me!"Cassius Dio, Roman History LXIII.29

With his death, the Julio-Claudian dynasty came to an end. Chaos ensued in the Year of the four emperors.

After death

See also: Nero Redivivus Legend and Pseudo-Nero

According to Suetonius and Cassius Dio, the people of Rome celebrated the death of Nero.Cassius Dio, Roman History 63Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Nero 57 Tacitus, though, describes a more complicated political environment. Tacitus mentions that Nero\'s death was welcomed by Senators, nobility and the upper-class.Tacitus, Histories I.4 The lower-class, slaves, frequenters of the arena and the theater, and "those who were supported by the famous excesses of Nero", on the other hand, were upset with the news. Members of the military were said to have mixed feelings, as they had allegiance to Nero, but were bribed to overthrow him.

Eastern sources, namely Philostratus II and Apollonius of Tyana, mention that Nero\'s death was mourned as he "restored the liberties of Hellas with a wisdom and moderation quite alien to his character"Philostratus II, The Life of Apollonius 5.41 and that he "held our liberties in his hand and respected them."Letter from Apollonius to Emperor Vespasian, Philostratus II, The Life of Apollonius 5.41

Modern scholarship generally holds that, while the Senate and more well-off individuals welcomed Nero\'s death, the general populace was "loyal to the end and beyond, for Otho and Vitellius both thought it worthwhile to appeal to their nostalgia."M. T. Griffin, Nero (1984), p. 186; Gibbon, Edward, The History of The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire Vol. I, Chap. III

Nero\'s name was erased from some monuments, in what Edward Champlin regards as "outburts of private zeal".Champlin (2003), p. 29. Many portraits of Nero were reworked to represent other figures; according to Eric R. Varner, over fifty such images survive.John Pollini, Review of Mutilation and Transformation: Damnatio Memoriae and Roman Imperial Portraiture by Eric R. Varner, The Art Bulletin (September 2006). This reworking of images is often explained as part of the way in which the memory of disgraced emperors was condemned posthumously (see damnatio memoriae). Champlin, however, doubts that the practice is necessarily negative and notes that some continued to create images of Nero long after his death.Champlin (2003), pp. 29–31.

Apotheosis of Nero, c. after 68. Artwork portraying Nero rising to divine status after his death.

The civil war during the Year of the Four Emperors was described by ancient historians as a troubling period. According to Tacitus, this instability was rooted in the fact that emperors could no longer rely on the perceived legitimacy of the imperial bloodline, as Nero and those before him could. Galba began his short reign with the execution of many allies of Nero and possible future enemies.Tacitus, Histories I.6 One notable enemy included Nymphidius Sabinus, who claimed to be the son of emperor Caligula.Plutarch, The Parallel Lives, The Life of Galba 9

Otho overthrew Galba. Otho was said to be liked by many soldiers because he resembled Nero.Tacitus, Histories I.13 It was said that the common Roman hailed Otho as Nero himself.Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Otho 7 Otho used "Nero" as a surname and reerected many statues to Nero. Vitellius overthrew Otho. Vitellius began his reign with a large funeral for Nero complete with songs written by Nero.Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Vitellius 11

After Nero\'s suicide in 68, there was a widespread belief, especially in the eastern provinces, that he was not dead and somehow would return.Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Nero 57; Tacitus, Histories II.8; Cassius Dio, Roman History LXVI.19 This belief came to be known as the Nero Redivivus Legend.

At least three Nero imposters emerged leading rebellions. The first, who sang and played the cithara or lyre and whose face was similar to that of the dead emperor, appeared in 69 during the reign of Vitellius.Tacitus, Histories II.8 After persuading some to recognize him, he was captured and executed. Sometime during the reign of Titus (79-81) there was another impostor who appeared in Asia and also sang to the accompaniment of the lyre and looked like Nero but he, too, was killed.Cassius Dio, Roman History LXVI.19 Twenty years after Nero\'s death, during the reign of Domitian, there was a third pretender. Supported by the Parthians, they hardly could be persuaded to give him upSuetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caears, Life of Nero 57. and the matter almost came to war.

The legend of Nero\'s return lasted for hundreds of years after Nero\'s death. Augustine of Hippo wrote of the legend as a popular belief in 422Augustine of Hippo, City of God XX.19.3

Historiography

The history of Nero’s reign is problematic in that no historical sources survived that were contemporary with Nero. These first histories at one time did exist and were described as biased and fantastical, either overly critical or praising of Nero.Tacitus, Annals I.1; Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews XX.8.3; Tacitus, Life of Gnaeus Julius Agricola 10; Tacitus, Annals XIII.20 The original sources were also said to contradict on a number of events. Tacitus, Annals XIII.20; Tacitus, Annals XIV.2 Nonetheless, these lost primary sources were the basis of surviving secondary and tertiary histories on Nero written by the next generations of historians. Tacitus, Annals XIII.20; Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews XIX.1.13 A few of the contemporary historians are known by name. Fabius Rusticus, Cluvius Rufus and Pliny the Elder all wrote condemning histories on Nero that are now lost.Tacitus, Annals XIII.20 There were also pro-Nero histories, but it is unknown who wrote them or on what deeds Nero was praised. Tacitus, Annals I.1; Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews XX.8.3

The bulk of what is known of Nero comes from Tacitus, Suetonius and Cassius Dio, who were all of the Patrician class. Tacitus and Suetonius wrote their histories on Nero over fifty years after his death, while Cassius Dio wrote his history over 150 years after Nero’s death. These sources contradict on a number of events in Nero’s life including the death of Claudius, the death of Agrippina and the Roman fire of 64, but they are consistent in their condemnation of Nero.

A handful of other sources also add a limited and varying perspective on Nero. Few surviving sources paint Nero in a favorable light. Some sources, though, portray him as a competent emperor who was popular with the Roman people, especially in the east.

Constantine in the 4th century became a patron of Christianity. Christian influence in Rome continued from that time forward. In these circumstances, Nero\'s record of persecuting Christians reinforced the negative perceptions that already existed.^{[citation needed]}

Cassius Dio Cocceianus

Cassius Dio (c. 155- 229) was the son of Cassius Apronianus, a Roman senator. He passed the greater part of his life in public service. He was a senator under Commodus and governor of Smyrna after the death of Septimius Severus; and afterwards suffect consul around 205, as also proconsul in Africa and Pannonia.

Books 61–63 of Dio\'s Roman History describe the reign of Nero. Only fragments of these books remain and what does remain was abridged and altered by John Xiphilinus, an 11th century monk.

Dio Chrysostom

Dio Chrysostom (c. 40– 120), a Greek philosopher and historian, wrote the Roman people were very happy with Nero and would have allowed him to rule indefinitely. They longed for his rule once he was gone and embraced imposters when they appeared:

“

Indeed the truth about this has not come out even yet; for so far as the rest of his subjects were concerned, there was nothing to prevent his continuing to be Emperor for all time, seeing that even now everybody wishes he were still alive. And the great majority do believe that he still is, although in a certain