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"Vegan" redirects here. For other uses, see Vegan (disambiguation).
The logo of the world\'s first organisation for vegans, the Vegan Society, registered in 1944.
Veganism is a philosophy and lifestyle that seeks to exclude the use of animals for food, clothing, or any other purpose.Memorandum of Association of the Vegan Society. About Us 1. Vegan Society (1979-11-20). Retrieved on 2007-02-22.Stepaniak, Joanne (2000). Being Vegan. McGraw-Hill Contemporary, 2,6,17,148-150. ISBN 978-0737303230. Vegans do not use or consume animal products of any kind.Criteria for Vegan food. Vegan Society. Retrieved on 2007-02-17. The most common reasons for becoming a vegan are ethical commitment or moral convictions concerning animal rights, the environment, human health, and spiritual or religious concerns.Time/CNN Poll: Do you consider yourself a vegetarian?. Time Magazine (2002-07-07). Retrieved on 2006-10-30.Types and quantities of food consumed: Vegetarian/vegan (PDF). National Diet & Nutrition Survey: Adults aged 19 to 64, Volume 1 2002 11, 23. Food Standards Agency. Retrieved on 2006-10-30. Of particular concern are the practices involved in factory farming and animal testing, and the intensive use of land and other resources required for animal farming.
Various polls have reported vegans to be between 0.2% and 1.3%How Many Adults Are Vegetarian?. Vegetarian Journal. Vegetarian Resource Group. Retrieved on 2007-03-18. of the U.S. population, and between 0.25% and 2.24%BMRB Social Research (2007-11-02). Data tables (PDF). Report, questionnaire and data tables following Survey of Public Attitudes and Behaviours toward the Environment: 2007 500-502. Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs. Retrieved on 2007-11-22. of the UK population.
Vegan diets (sometimes called strict or pure vegetarian diets) are a subset of vegetarian diets, which are credited with lowering the risk of colon cancer, heart attack, high blood cholesterol, high blood pressure, prostate cancer, and stroke.Key TJ, Thorogood M, Appleby PN, Burr ML (1996). "Dietary habits and mortality in 11,000 vegetarians and health conscious people: results of a 17 year follow up". BMJ 313 (7060): 775-9. PMID 8842068. However, vegan diets can be low in levels of calcium, iodine, vitamin B12 and vitamin D. Vegans are therefore encouraged to plan their diet and take dietary supplements as appropriate. (June 2003) "Position of the American Dietetic Association and Dietitians of Canada: Vegetarian diets". Journal of the American Dietetic Association 103 (6): 748-765. doi:10.1053/jada.2003.50142. Retrieved on 2006-09-15.
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The word vegan, pronounced /ˈviːgən/,vegan. Dictionary.com Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc. Retrieved on 2007-05-31. was originally derived from "vegetarian" in 1944 when Elsie Shrigley and Donald Watson, frustrated that the term "vegetarianism" had come to include the eating of dairy products, founded the UK Vegan Society.Vegan Society: History. Vegan Society. Retrieved on 2007-02-17. They combined the first three and last two letters of vegetarian to form "vegan," which they saw as "the beginning and end of vegetarian."Vegetarians in Paradise interview with Donald Watson. Vegetarians in Paradise Web Magazine. Vegetarians in Paradise (2004-08-11). Retrieved on 2006-10-31. The British Vegan Society defines veganism in this way:
Insert the text of the quote here, without quotation marks.
Other vegan societies use similar definitions.What is Vegan?. American Vegan Society. Retrieved on 2006-09-15.Introduction to Veganism. The Vegan Society of New Zealand. Retrieved on 2006-10-30.About Vegana. The Danish Vegan Society. Retrieved on 2006-10-30.
Data regarding the number of vegans is available in some countries.
Former 2008 Democratic presidential candidate Dennis Kucinich and his wife Elizabeth. Kucinich is known for his veganism and support of animal welfare.
A 2002 Time/CNN poll found that 4% of American adults consider themselves vegetarians, and 5% of self-described vegetarians consider themselves vegans, which implies that 0.2% of American adults are vegans. A 2006 poll conducted by Harris Interactive in the US listed specific foods and asked respondents to indicate which items they never eat, rather than asking respondents to self-identify. The survey found that of the 1,000 adults polled, 1.4% never eat meat, poultry, fish, seafood, dairy products, or eggs and were therefore essentially vegan in their eating habits. The survey also found that about 1.4% of men and 1.3% of women have vegan diets.
In 2002, the UK Food Standards Agency reported that 5% of respondents self-identified as vegetarian or vegan. Though 29% of that 5% said they avoided "all animal products", only 5% reported avoiding dairy products. Based on these figures, approximately 0.25% of the UK population follow a vegan diet. In 2005, The Times estimated there were 250,000 vegans in Britain, which suggests around 0.4% of the UK population is vegan.Donald Watson. Times Online. Times Newspapers Ltd. (2005-11-16). Retrieved on 2006-09-15. However, a 2007 survey for the Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs into the UK population\'s attitudes and behaviour towards the environment found that 2.24% of the population identified themselves as vegan. In the same study, vegetarians who did not also eat chicken or fish made up 2.7% of the population. The DEFRA study also indicated that slightly more men than women are vegan, that more vegans live in towns or cities than the country, and that people aged 16-29 were vegan more often than any other age group.
Various polls and research conducted during the 1990s put the percentage of Swedish residents being vegan at between 0.27% and 1.6% of the entire population.Pettersson, Björn (June 2005). Vegansk näringslära på vetenskaplig grund, 2nd edition (in Swedish), Orsa: HÄLSAböcker/Energica Förlag, 17-19. ISBN 9185506796. A study of the eating patterns of Swedish children of ages 4, 8 and 11 by the Swedish National Food Administration found that about 1% of the children were vegetarian, less than 1% were lacto-vegetarians, but found no children to be vegans.Heléne Enghardt Barbieri; Wulf Becker (2004-12-15). Svenska barns matvanor 2003 (PDF) (Swedish) 5. Livsmedelsverket. Retrieved on 2007-11-23. The website VeganWelt estimates there to be between 250,000 and 460,500 vegans in Germany, or between 0.3% and 0.5% of the German population.VeganWelt: vegan FAQ. veganwelt.de. Retrieved on 2007-10-03. “In Deutschland gibt es zwischen 250 000 und 460 500 Veganer (5 Millionen Vegetarier)” The Netherlands Association for Veganism estimates there to be approximately 16,000 vegans in the Netherlands, or around 0.1% of the Dutch population.Wat is veganisme?. veganisme.org. Nederlandse Vereniging voor Veganisme. Retrieved on 2007-10-03.
The term "animal product" in a vegan context refers to any material derived from animals for human use. Notable animal products include meat, poultry, seafood, eggs, dairy products, honey, fur, leather, wool, and silk. Common animal by-products include gelatin, lanolin, rennet, whey, casein, beeswax, and shellac.
Animal ingredients can be found in countless products and are used in the production of—though not always present in the final form of—many more;Vegan FAQs. Vegan Outreach. Retrieved on 2007-03-11. “Is refined sugar vegan? It depends on how you define \'vegan.\' Refined sugars do not contain any animal products, and so by an ingredients-based definition of vegan, refined sugar is vegan. ... However, if one accepts a process-based definition of vegan, then many other familiar products would also not be considered vegan. For instance, steel and vulcanized rubber are produced using animal fats and, in many areas, groundwater and surface water is filtered through bone charcoal filters.”IVU FAQ: Drinks. International Vegetarian Union FAQ. International Vegetarian Union (2006-08-03). Retrieved on 2007-03-11.Information Sheet: Alcohol. Vegetarian Society. Retrieved on 2007-03-11. “The use of animal derived products in the production of alcoholic beverages is fairly widespread not because no alternatives exist, but because they always have been used and there is little demand from the consumer for an alternative. ... The main appearance of animal derived products is in the fining or clearing process, though others may be used as colorants or anti-foaming agents.” many of these ingredients are esoteric,IVU FAQ: Ingredients. International Vegetarian Union FAQ. International Vegetarian Union. Retrieved on 2006-10-30.IVU FAQ: Animal Derived Ingredient List. International Vegetarian Union FAQ. International Vegetarian Union (2006-08-03). Retrieved on 2007-03-10. also have non-animal sources,IVU FAQ: Maybe Animal Derived. International Vegetarian Union FAQ. International Vegetarian Union (2006-08-03). Retrieved on 2007-03-10. and especially in non-food products may not even be identified. Although some vegans attempt to avoid all these ingredients, Vegan Outreach argues that "it can be prohibitively expensive and time-consuming to shun every minor or hidden animal-derived ingredient," and therefore that doing what is "best for preventing suffering" is more important than identifying and excluding every animal ingredient.On Living With Compassion. Vegan Outreach. Retrieved on 2007-03-10. “Our desire to oppose and help end cruelty to animals can help guide our choices, as well as provide a simple, easy-to-understand explanation of our actions. The question isn\'t, "Is this vegan?" but, "What is best for preventing suffering?"”On Living With Compassion (Old version). Vegan Outreach. Retrieved on 2007-03-10. “We believe that framing veganism as the avoidance of a specific list of “bad” ingredients is not the best way to achieve results. When looked at closely, any ingredients-based definition of vegan collapses into inconsistencies. This is why we stress that the essence of being vegan is working to end cruelty to animals.”
Although honey and silk are by definition animal products, some vegans consider their use and the use of other insect products to be acceptable.Is honey vegan?. Vegan FAQ\'s. Vegan Action. Retrieved on 2007-10-03.
Sows at an intensive pig farm. Opposition to factory farming is one of the most common ethical reasons given for veganism.Factory Farms. Why Vegan. Vegan Outreach. Retrieved on 2006-09-15.
Vegan organisations maintain that animals have certain rights, and as such it is not ethical for humans to use animals in ways that infringe those rights.About Veganism: For the Animals. Vegan Action. Retrieved on 2007-05-29. “Veganism emerges as the lifestyle most consistent with the philosophy that animals are not ours to use.”PETA\'s History: Compassion in Action. People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals. Retrieved on 2007-05-29. “PETA operates under the simple principle that animals are not ours to eat, wear, experiment on, or use for entertainment.”About Mercy for Animals. Mercy for Animals. Retrieved on 2007-05-29. “Mercy For Animals is a 501(c)(3) non-profit animal advocacy organization that believes non-human animals are irreplaceable individuals with morally significant interests and hence rights, including the right to live free of unnecessary suffering.” Practices seen as cruel to animals include factory farming,Cruelty to Animals: Mechanized Madness. GoVeg.com. People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals. Retrieved on 2006-09-15.Exploitation. Vegan Society. Retrieved on 2007-05-29. “The vast majority of these animals will have spent their brief lives in the cramped, distressing conditions of the factory farm. Their close confinement and the overworking of their bodies will have led to increased susceptibility to injury and disease. They will have been reared on an unnatural diet designed to increase productivity and many will have undergone various painful and traumatic procedures.” animal testing,Testing. Vegan Society. Retrieved on 2007-05-29. “Every year, millions of animals are subjected to the most horrifically painful experiments just so people can have a new brand of shampoo or a differently scented perfume.” and displaying animals for entertainment in circuses,Circuses: Three Rings of Abuse. People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals. Retrieved on 2007-05-29. “Colorful pageantry disguises the fact that animals used in circuses are captives who are forced, under threat of punishment, to perform confusing, uncomfortable, repetitious, and often-painful acts.” rodeos,Rodeo: Cruelty for a Buck. People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals. Retrieved on 2007-05-29. “In reality, rodeos are nothing more than manipulative displays of human domination over animals, thinly disguised as entertainment.” and zoos.Animal Rights Uncompromised: Zoos. People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals. Retrieved on 2007-05-29. “PETA opposes zoos because zoo cages and cramped enclosures deprive animals of their most basic needs. The zoo community regards the animals it keeps as commodities, and animals are regularly bought, sold, borrowed, and traded without any regard for established relationships.”
Philosopher Tom Regan argues that animals are entities which possess "inherent value"Regan, Tom (1983). The Case for Animal Rights. Berkeley and Los Angeles, California: University of California Press, 244-245. ISBN 0-520-05460-1. “…moral patients (e.g., animals in the wild)…For these reasons, the subject-of-a-life criterion can be defended as citing a relevant similarity between moral agents and patients, one that makes the attribution of equal inherent value to them both intelligible and nonarbitrary.” and therefore have "basic moral rights," and that the principal moral right they possess is "the right to respectful treatment."Regan, Tom (1983). The Case for Animal Rights. Berkeley and Los Angeles, California: University of California Press, 327. ISBN 0-520-05460-1. “The principal conclusion reached in the present chapter is that all moral agents and patients have certain basic moral rights. … The principal basic moral right possessed by all moral agents and patients is the right to respectful treatment.” Regan additionally argues that animals have a "basic moral right not to be harmed," which can be overridden only when the individual\'s right to be harmed is "morally outweighed" by "other valid moral principles."Regan, Tom (1983). The Case for Animal Rights. Berkeley and Los Angeles, California: University of California Press, 328. ISBN 0-520-05460-1. “It was also argued that all moral agents and patients have a prima facie basic moral right not to be harmed.” Regan, Tom (1983). The Case for Animal Rights. Berkeley and Los Angeles, California: University of California Press, 287. ISBN 0-520-05460-1. “To say this right is a prima facie right is to say that (1) consideration of this right is always a morally relevant consideration, and (2) anyone who would harm another, or allow others to do so, must be able to justify doing so by (a) appealing to other valid moral principles and by (b) showing that these principles morally outweigh the right not to be harmed in a given case.” From this "rights view," Regan argues that "animal agriculture, as we know it, is unjust" even when animals are raised "humanely."Regan, Tom (1983). The Case for Animal Rights. Berkeley and Los Angeles, California: University of California Press, 394. ISBN 0-520-05460-1. “This chapter traced some of the implications of the rights view. On this view, animal agriculture, as we know it, is unjust (9.1), and it is unjust because it fails to treat farm animals with the respect they are due” Regan, Tom (1983). The Case for Animal Rights. Berkeley and Los Angeles, California: University of California Press, 394. ISBN 0-520-05460-1. “Animal agriculture, as we know it, is wrong, not only when farm animals are raised in close confinement in factory farms, but also when they are raised "humanely," since even in this case their lives are routinely brought to an untimely end because of human interests” Regan argues against various justifications for eating meat including that "animal flesh is tasty," that it is "habit" for "individuals and as a culture", that it is "convenient," that "meat is nutritious," that there is an obligation the economic interests of farmers or to the economic interests of a country, or that "farm animals are legal property," and finds that all fail to treat animals with the respect due to them by their basic rights.Regan, Tom (1983). The Case for Animal Rights. Berkeley and Los Angeles, California: University of California Press, 333-334. ISBN 0-520-05460-1. “The argument just given is sound only if the case can be made that raising animals to eat and eating them satisfies all the requirements of the liberty principle. Once we examine the matter more closely, we shall see that it fails to do so.” Regan therefore argues that "those who support current animal agriculture by purchasing meat have a moral obligation to stop doing so" and that "the individual has a duty to lead a vegetarian way of life."Regan, Tom (1983). The Case for Animal Rights. Berkeley and Los Angeles, California: University of California Press, 394. ISBN 0-520-05460-1. “Those who support current animal agriculture by purchasing meat have a moral obligation to stop doing so. … the rights view holds that the individual has a duty to lead a vegetarian way of life”
Legal theorist Gary L. Francione argues that animals are sentient, and that this is sufficient to grant them moral consideration.Francione, Gary (2006-12-27). Mission Statement. Animal Rights: The Abolitionist Approach. Retrieved on 2007-05-29. “We have no moral justification for using nonhumans for our purposes. … A shorthand way of describing the view presented here is to say that all sentient beings should have at least one right—the right not to be treated as property. … This site also seeks to make clear that the moral baseline of an animal rights movement is veganism.” Francione argues that "all sentient beings should have at least one right—the right not to be treated as property" and that there is "no moral justification for using nonhumans for our purposes." Francione further argues that adopting veganism should be regarded as the "baseline" action taken by people concerned with animal rights.
Utilitarian philosopher Peter Singer argues that there is "no moral justification" for refusing to take sentient animal suffering into consideration in ethical decisions.Singer, Peter [1993] (1999). "Equality for Animals?", Practical Ethics, Second Edition, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 57–58. ISBN 0-521-43971-X. “If a being suffers, there can be no moral justification for refusing to take that suffering into consideration. … This is why the limit of sentience…is the only defensible boundary of concern for the interests of others. … Similarly those I would call \'speciesists\' give greater weight to their own species when there is a clash between their interests and the interests of those of other species.” Singer argues that an animal\'s interests warrant equal consideration with the interests of humans, and that not doing so is "speciesist." Based upon his evaluation of these interests, Singer argues that "our use of animals for food becomes questionable—especially when animal flesh is a luxury rather than a necessity."Singer, Peter [1993] (1999). "Equality for Animals?", Practical Ethics, Second Edition, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 62. ISBN 0-521-43971-X. “The use of animals for food is probably the oldest and most widespread form of animal use. There is also a sense in which it is the most basic form of animal use, the foundation stone on which rests the belief that animals exist for our pleasure and convenience. If animals count in their own right, our use of animals for food becomes questionable—especially when animal flesh is a luxury rather than a necessity.” Singer does not contend that killing animals is always wrong, but that from a practical standpoint it is "better to reject altogether the killing of animals for food, unless one must do so to survive."Singer, Peter [1993] (1999). "Taking Life: Animals", Practical Ethics, Second Edition, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 134. ISBN 0-521-43971-X. “In any case, at the level of practical moral principles, it would be better to reject altogether the killing of animals for food, unless one must do so to survive.” Singer therefore advocates both veganism and improved conditions for farm animals as practical means to reduce animal suffering.Clyne, Catherine (10 2006). Singer Says. Satya. Retrieved on 2007-05-29. “If you read the book, it does make clear that going vegan is a good solution to a lot of the ethical problems.”Gilson, Dave (2006-05-03). Chew the Right Thing. Mother Jones. The Foundation for National Progress. Retrieved on 2007-05-29. “In 1975 he published Animal Liberation, a pioneering defense of the rights of animals that concluded that veganism is the most ethically justifiable diet.”Broudy, Oliver (2006-05-08). The practical ethicist. Salon.com. Salon Media Group, Inc.. Retrieved on 2007-05-29. “If you can be vegetarian or vegan that\'s ideal. If you can buy organic and vegan that\'s better still, and organic and fair trade and vegan, better still, but if that gets too difficult or too complicated, just ask yourself, Does this product come from intensive animal agriculture?”
In the November/December 1996 issue of Nutrition & Health Forum newsletter (Prometheus Books Amherst, New York), William Jarvis, founder of the private organization The National Council Against Health Fraud, after explaining that "The Physicians Committee for Responsible Medicine (PCRM) aggressively attacks the use of animal foods and has proposed its own food-groups model, which excludes all animal products", writes:
"I know that meatless diets can be healthful, even desirable, for some people...Because of the influence of my Seventh-day Adventist (SDA) environment, I practiced vegetarianism for many years. My wife and I even tried to give up consuming all animal products, but this didn\'t work..."
Jarvis also states:
"I have learned to be suspicious, and to search for hidden agendas, when I evaluate claims of the benefits of vegetarianism.... The belief that all life is sacred can lead to absurdities such as allowing mosquitoes to spread malaria, or vipers to run loose on one\'s premises...Inherent in the idea that all life is sacred is the supposition that all forms of life have equal value. The natural world reveals hierarchies in the food chain, the dominance of certain species over others ...I don\'t believe that all research done by vegetarians is untrustworthy...I gave up vegetarianism because I found that commitment thereto meant surrendering the objectivity that is essential to the personal and professional integrity of a scientist..."
He ends adding that he can support pragmatic vegetarianism, but he believes that vegetarian ideologues are dangerous to themselves and to society.Why I Am Not a Vegetarian By Dr. William T. Jarvis
Vegans like Peter Singer follow veganism for other reasons. Singer, who does not believe that all animal life is sacred, advocates veganism for utilitarian reasons, stating that the benefit caused by a good taste for the human who consumes animal products is more than negated by the pain felt by the beings who are consumed.Singer, Peter (1979). "The case against using animals for food is at its strongest when animals are made to lead miserable lives so that their flesh can be made available to humans at the lowest possible cost. ... In order to have meat on the table at a price that people can afford, our society tolerates methods of meat production that confine sentient animals in cramped, unsuitable conditions for the entire duration of their lives. ... To avoid speciesism we must stop these practices." Practical Ethics, Cambridge 1979. Chapter 3.
Steven Davis, professor of animal science at Oregon State University, argues that the number of wild animals killed in crop production is greater than those killed in ruminant-pasture production. Whenever a tractor goes through a field to plow, disc, cultivate, apply fertilizer and/or pesticide, and harvest, animals are killed.Davis, S.L. (2001). "The least harm principle suggests that humans should eat beef, lamb, dairy, not a vegan diet." EurSafe 2001. Food Safety, Food Quality and Food Ethics. Proceedings of the Third Congress of the European Society for Agricultural and Food Ethics. pp 449-450. Davis gives a small sampling of U.S. field animals that are threatened by intensive crop production, including many mammals, birds and amphibians. In one small example, an alfalfa harvest caused a 50% decline in the gray-tailed vole population. According to Davis, if all the cropland in the U. S. were used to produce crops for a vegan diet, it is estimated that around 1.8 billion animals would be killed annually.Davis S.L. (2003). "The least harm principle may require that humans consume a diet containing large herbivores, not a vegan diet". Journal of Agricultural and Environmental Ethics 16 (4): 387-394. doi:10.1023/A:1025638030686.
Gaverick Matheny, a Ph.D. candidate in agricultural economics at the University of Maryland, counters that Davis\' reasoning contains several major flaws, including distorting the notion of "harm" to animals, and miscalculating the number of animal deaths based on areas of land rather than per consumer. For example, currently nearly 10 billion animals are killed each year in the U.S. for food, more than five times greater than Davis\' estimated 1.8 billion for crop harvesting. Matheny says that "After correcting for these errors, Davis’s argument makes a strong case for, rather than against, adopting a vegetarian diet."Gaverick Matheny (2003). "Least harm: a defense of vegetarianism from Steven Davis’s omnivorous proposal". Journal of Agricultural and Environmental Ethics 16 (5): 505-511. doi:10.1023/A:1026354906892.
The Physicians Committee for Responsible Medicine recommends what they call the "Four New Food Groups.""Vegetarian starter kit", Physicians Committee for Responsible Medicine, posted on vegsource.com. They suggest that vegans and vegetarians eat at least three servings of vegetables a day, including dark green, leafy vegetables such as broccoli, and dark yellow and orange such as carrots; five servings of whole grains (bread, rice, pasta); three of fruit; and two of legumes (beans, peas, lentils).
Vegan version of the nutritional food pyramid which normally includes meat and animal products.
Certain widespread diets (such as the standard American diet, which is high in animal-based foods and low in plant-based foods) are detrimental to health, and a vegan diet thus represents an improvement,Segelken, Roger (2001-06-28). China Study II: Switch to Western diet may bring Western-type diseases. Cornell Chronicle. Retrieved on 2006-09-15.China-Cornell-Oxford Project On Nutrition, Environment and Health at Cornell University. Division of Nutritional Sciences. Cornell University. Retrieved on 2006-09-15. in part because vegan diets are often high enough in fruit and vegetables to meet or exceed the recommended fruit and vegetable intakes. Conversely, based on a study in Japan, researchers suggest that increased consumption of some animal products coincided with a decrease in risk for some forms of cerebrovascular disease and stroke mortality.Possible protective effect of milk, meat and fish for cerebrovascular disease mortality in Japan.. Japan Epidemiological Association (1999-08-09). Retrieved on 2006-09-15.
Benefits of vegetarian diets might be valid also for strict vegan diets: according to the American Dietetic Association and Dietitians of Canada, diets that avoid meat tend to have lower levels of saturated fat, cholesterol, and animal protein, and higher levels of carbohydrates, fiber, magnesium, potassium, folate, and antioxidants, such as vitamins C and E, and phytochemicals. People who avoid meat are reported to have lower body mass index than those following the average Canadian diet; from this follows lower death rates from ischemic heart disease; lower blood cholesterol levels; lower blood pressure; and lower rates of hypertension, type 2 diabetes, and prostate and colon cancer.
A 1999 meta-study of five studies comparing vegetarian and non-vegetarian mortality rates in western countries found equivalent mortality rates for vegans and those who eat meat regularly. The study also found equivalent and lower mortality rates for vegetarians and those who eat meat infrequently. Timothy, J; et al. (September 1999). "Mortality in vegetarians and nonvegetarians: detailed findings from a collaborative analysis of 5 prospective studies". American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 70 (3): 516S-524S. PMID 10479225. Retrieved on 2008-01-31. “Death rate ratio (Number of deaths)
Regular meat eaters (n = 31766): 1.00 (3017)
Vegans (n = 753): 1.00 (68)” A 2003 study of British vegetarians, including vegans, found similar mortality rates between vegetarians and other groups.Key, Timothy J; et. al. (September 2003). "Mortality in British vegetarians: review and preliminary results from EPIC-Oxford". American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 78 (3): 533S-538S. PMID 12936946. Retrieved on 2008-01-31. “In conclusion, both the vegetarians and the nonvegetarians in these 3 British cohort studies have a low mortality compared with the national average. Comparisons within the cohorts suggest that the vegetarians have a moderately lower mortality from IHD than the nonvegetarians but that there is little difference in mortality from other major causes of death.”
A 2006 study found that in people with type 2 diabetes a low-fat vegan diet reduced weight, BMI, total cholesterol, and LDL cholesterol and did so to a greater extent than the diet prescribed by the American Diabetes Association.Barnard, Neal; Joshua Cohen, David J.A. Jenkins, Gabrielle Turner-McGrievy, Lise Gloede, Brent Jaster, Kim Seidl, Amber A. Green, and Stanley Talpers (08 2006). "A Low-Fat Vegan Diet Improves Glycemic Control and Cardiovascular Risk Factors in a Randomized Clinical Trial in Individuals With Type 2 Diabetes". Diabetes Care 29 (8): 1777-1783. doi:10.2337/dc06-0606. Retrieved on 2008-01-26. “Both diets were associated with significant clinical improvements, as indicated by reductions in A1C, body weight, plasma lipid concentrations, and urinary albumin excretion. Among medication-stable participants, changes in A1C, weight, BMI, waist circumference, total cholesterol, and LDL cholesterol were significantly greater in the vegan group. The magnitude of A1C reduction in medication-stable vegan group participants, 1.23 percentage points, compares favorably with that observed in single-agent therapy with oral diabetes drugs.”
The Humane Society of the United States on the subject of a vegan diet as prevention of cancer:
"An exhaustive report on diet and cancer was released by the American Institute for Cancer Research and the World Cancer Research Fund. Ten years in the making, reviewing more than 7,000 scientific studies, this 500+ page report is being considered the most comprehensive review ever published on the causal role of diet in cancer. The good news is that cancer is largely preventable. In addition to stopping smoking, exercising daily, and attaining a healthy weight, the expert panel recommends an overall limit on meat intake, and specifically singles out processed meat—bacon, hot dogs, ham and cold cuts—as a "convincing cause" of cancer. In general they conclude: "Eat mostly foods of plant origin". By choosing to eat a more humane, plant-based diet we can simultaneously attend to our own welfare, that of the animals, and that of our planet."HSUS cancer report.. Humane Society of the United States. Retrieved on 2008-02-01..
The American Dietetic Association has said that "appropriately planned vegetarian diets are healthful, nutritionally adequate, and provide health benefits in the prevention and treatment of certain diseases." However, poorly planned vegan diets can be deficient in nutrients such as vitamin B12,Vegan Health: Vitamin B12. veganhealth.org. Vegan Outreach (2006-07-26). Retrieved on 2007-02-23. vitamin D,Vegan Health: Bone Health. veganhealth.org. Vegan Outreach (2007-01-09). Retrieved on 2007-02-23. calcium,P Appleby; A Roddam, N Allen and T Key (02 2007). "Comparative fracture risk in vegetarians and nonvegetarians in EPIC-Oxford" (fee required). European Journal of Clinical Nutrition. doi:10.1038/sj.ejcn.1602659. PMID 17299475. Retrieved on 2007-02-25. iodineVegan Health: Iodine. veganhealth.org. Vegan Outreach (2006-12-26). Retrieved on 2007-02-23. and omega-3 fatty acids.Vegan Health: Fat. veganhealth.org. Vegan Outreach (2007-02-20). Retrieved on 2007-02-23. These deficiencies have potentially serious consequences, including anemia,What every vegan should know about vitamin B12. Vegan Society. Retrieved on 2007-02-22. “Vitamin B12, whether in supplements, fortified foods, or animal products, comes from micro-organisms.” ricketsVegans and Vitamin D. Vegan Society. Retrieved on 2007-02-22. and cretinismSteven Walsh. Nutrition: Iodine. Vegan Society. Retrieved on 2007-02-23. in children, and osteomalacia and hypothyroidism in adults.
Deficiencies in Vitamin B12, a bacterial product that cannot be reliably found in plant foods,Vitamin B12 Information Sheet. Vegetarian Society. Retrieved on 2007-02-22. “any B12 present in plant foods is likely to be unavailable to humans and so these foods should not be relied upon as safe sources.” can have serious health consequences, including anemia and neurodegenerative disease.Vitamin B12 (cobalamin). Merck Manual Home Edition. Retrieved on 2006-10-30. Although clinical B12 deficiency is rare in vegans, if a person has not eaten more than the daily needed amount of B12 over a long period before becoming a vegan then they may not have built up any significant store of the vitamin.Jack Norris, RD (2005-07-22). Vegan Health: Myth about How Often Someone Needs B12. veganhealth.org. Vegan Outreach. Retrieved on 2007-01-02. In a 2002 laboratory study, more of the strict vegan participants\' B12 and iron levels were compromised than those of lacto- or lacto-ovo-vegetarian participants.Obeid R, Geisel J, Schorr H, Hubner U, Herrmann W. (2002). "The impact of vegetarianism on some haematological parameters". Eur J Haematol. 69 (5–6): 275-9. PMID 12460231.
The Vegan Society and Vegan Outreach, and others, recommend that vegans either consistently eat foods fortified with B12 or take a B12 supplement.Healthy choices on a vegan diet. Vegan Society. Retrieved on 2007-02-14.Reed Mangels, Ph.D., R.D.. Vitamin B12 in the Vegan Diet. Vegetarian Resource Group. Retrieved on 2007-02-22.Don\'t Vegetarians Have Trouble Getting Enough Vitamin B12?. Physicians Committee for Responsible Medicine. Retrieved on 2007-02-22. Tempeh, seaweed, spirulina, organic produce, soil on unwashed vegetables, and intestinal bacteria have not been shown to be reliable sources of B12 for the dietary needs of vegans.Jack Norris, RD. Vegan Health: B12 in Tempeh, Seaweeds, Organic Produce, and Other Plant Foods. veganhealth.org. Vegan Outreach. Retrieved on 2007-02-22.Jack Norris, RD. Vegan Health: Are Intestinal Bacteria a Reliable Source of B12?. veganhealth.org. Vegan Outreach. Retrieved on 2007-02-22.
It is recommended that vegans eat three servings per day of a high calcium food, such as fortified soy milk, and take a calcium supplement as necessary. The EPIC-Oxford study showed that vegans have an increased risk of bone fractures over both meat eaters and vegetarians, likely due to lower dietary calcium intake, but that vegans consuming more than the UK\'s estimated average requirements for calcium of 525 mg/day had risk of bone fractures similar to other groups.Comparative fracture risk in vegetarians and nonvegetarians in EPIC-Oxford.. Retrieved on 2007-06-17. However, the authors of The China Study state that Osteoporosis is linked to the consumption of animal protein because animal protein, unlike plant protein, increases the acidity of blood and tissues. They state that to neutralize this acid, calcium, a very effective base, is pulled from the bones, which weakens them and puts them at greater risk for fracture.Campbell, T. Colin (2006). The China Study:The Most Comprehensive Study of Nutrition Ever Conducted and the Startling Implications for Diet, Weight Loss and Long-term Health. Benbella Books, 205. ISBN 1-932100-38-5. The authors add that "in our rural China Study, where the animal to plant ratio [for protein] was about 10%, the fracture rate is only one-fifth that of the U.S."Campbell, T. Colin (2006). The China Study:The Most Comprehensive Study of Nutrition Ever Conducted and the Startling Implications for Diet, Weight Loss and Long-term Health. Benbella Books, 208. ISBN 1-932100-38-5.
For light skinned people, adequate amounts of vitamin D may also be obtained by spending 15 to 30 minutes in the sunlight every few days. Dark skinned people need significantly more sunlight to obtain the same amount of vitamin D, and sunlight exposure may be difficult for vegans in areas with low levels of sunlight during winter; in these cases supplementation is recommended.Information Sheet: Vegan Nutrition. Vegetarian Society. Retrieved on 2007-02-22.Jack Norris, RD (2003-04-18). Staying a Healthy Vegan. Vegan Outreach. Retrieved on 2007-02-22. “There are no reliable, unfortified plant sources of vitamin B12; therefore fortified foods and/or supplements are necessary for the optimal health of vegans.” Mushrooms are one of the few sources of Vitamin D suitable for vegans.
Iodine supplementation may be necessary for vegans in countries where salt is not typically iodized, where it is iodized at low levels, or where, as in Britain or Ireland, animal products are used for iodine delivery. Iodine can be obtained from most vegan multivitamins or from regular consumption of kelp.
According to the US National Institute of Health, "with appropriate food choices, vegan diets can be adequate for children at all ages."Messina, V; Mangels, AR (June 2001). "Considerations in planning vegan diets: children.". Journal of the American Dietetic Association 101 (6): 661-9. PMID 11424545. Retrieved on 2007-06-12. The American Dietetic Association also considers well-planned vegan diets "appropriate for all stages of the life cycle, including pregnancy and lactation," but recommends that vegan mothers supplement for iron, vitamin D, and vitamin B12.Lucia Lynn Kaiser; Lindsay Allen (2002-05-03). Nutrition and lifestyle for a healthy pregnancy outcome. American Dietetic Association. Retrieved on 2007-02-14.ADA’s Public Relations Team (2006-10-03). The Vegetarian Mom-to-Be. American Dietetic Association. Retrieved on 2007-02-14. Vitamin B12 deficiency in lactating vegetarian mothers has been linked to deficiencies and neurological disorders in their children.Kuhne T, Bubl R, Baumgartner R (1991). "Maternal vegan diet causing a serious infantile neurological disorder due to vitamin B12 deficiency". Eur J Pediatr 150 (3): 205-8. PMID 2044594. Weiss R, Fogelman Y, Bennett M (2004). "Severe vitamin B12 deficiency in an infant associated with a maternal deficiency and a strict vegetarian diet". J Pediatr Hematol Oncol 26 (4): 270-1. PMID 15087959. Some research suggests that the essential omega-3 fatty acid α-linolenic acid and its derivatives should also be supplemented in pregnant and lactating vegan mothers, since they are very low in most vegan diets, and the metabolically related docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) is essential to the developing visual system.Sanders TA (1999). "Essential fatty acid requirements of vegetarians in pregnancy, lactation, and infancy". Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 70 (3 Suppl): 555S-559S. PMID 10479231. A maternal vegan diet has also been associated with low birth weight,Sanders TA (1999). "The nutritional adequacy of plant-based diets". The Proceedings of the Nutrition Society 58 (2): 265-9. PMID 10466165. and a five times lower likelihood of having twins than those who eat animal products.Steinman, G. (05 2006). "Mechanisms of twinning: VII. Effect of diet and heredity on the human twinning rate." (PDF, fee required). Journal of Reproductive Medicine 51 (5): 405-10. PMID 16779988. Retrieved on 2007-02-25.
Several cases of severe infant malnutrition and some fatalities have been associated with a poorly planned vegan diet,Retsinas, Greg. "Couple Guilty Of Assault In Vegan Case", New York Times, Arthur Ochs Sulzberger, Jr., April 5, 2003. Retrieved on 2007-07-17. "Vegan Parents Get Prison In Infant\'s Death", KSBW 8, May 9, 2007. Retrieved on 2007-07-17. Susannah Nesmith; David Kidwell. "Parents jailed in baby\'s death", Miami Herald, Miami Herald Media Co., 2003-06-07. Retrieved on 2007-09-17. Archived from the original on 2003-12-17. "A Miami-Dade medical examiner\'s office autopsy concluded Woyah died of severe malnutrition, according to an arrest report."
